However if members would like to discuss the history & significance of the Benin bronzes, or the chronicle of African and colonial artifacts sent to Western museums (prior to the year 2000) then that is permitted.
The fortune of Africa - A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor - 2014 edition (Part III - 10.A chain of crosses )
Venturing into the interior in 1486, the Portuguese encountered the Edo kingdom of Benin. In recent years, Benin (Beh-NEEN) had been transformed by its warrior king Ewuare into a major state in the rainforest region of what is now southern Nigeria. From his capital at Benin City, Ewuare was said to have conquered more than 200 towns and villages, building a small empire that extended for seventy miles.
His palace grounds included a spacious compound for courtiers, craftsmen and artisans. He sponsored ivory carving and sophisticated brasswork, carried out by specialist guilds with high skill, part of a tradition that could be traced back to the Nok Culture of central Nigeria of the first millennium BCE.
As well as producing regalia for the royal court, the ivory carvers’ guild, the Igbesanmwan, turned out a variety of other ivory carvings for the wealthy elite – bowls, boxes, combs and bracelets, sometimes inlaid with copper or gilt-work. The Portuguese were so impressed by the quality that they commissioned merchandise that they could take back to Europe: salt-cellars, forks, spoons and hunting horns made of ivory and sculptures and plaques made of brass.
Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East AN ENCYCLOPEDIA John A. Shoup (2011 edition) (Bini/Edo section page)(Page 63-64)
The Bini/Edo belong to the Kwa group of the Benue-Kwa family of the Niger-Congo phylum of languages. The language is usu- ally called Bini, and they numbered 3.8 million at the turn of the 21st century.
They are found mainly in the Edo State in southern Nigeria and claim direct descent from the Edo, who founded the state of Benin in the 14th century.
The Bini/Edo emerged sometime around 1000 in the rain forest of Nigeria. The Bini/ Edo moved from the savanna into the forest, building large sites and excavating around them ......
They built large and densely populated settlements; often larger ones grew into and incorporated smaller ones. They developed a highly centralized business elite with far- reaching trade links to the Hausa, Songhay, and Yoruba states, and expanded southward into regions of less centralized Ijoid peoples. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Benin kingdom, as it was called, became one of the most powerful in the region. The height of the Benin Kingdom lasted from the 14th to the 17th century, and their wealth was due to trade....
Benin City had wide, straight streets and was sur- rounded by earthwork walls. Matrilineal descent patterns helped shape the management of the smaller villages in the kingdom, and women had a say in the politics of the kingdom through the 17th century.
The period of political height was also the height of its artistic production, in bronzes and carved ivory.
When Benin City fell to the British in 1897, some 3,000 brass, ivory, and wooden objects were taken away to Europe and later sold to pay for the expedition’s costs. Around 1,000 brass plaques from the palace of the king, or oba, dating from between the 16th and 17th centuries were among the booty taken, and their beauty and sophistication astonished Western art scholars. The vast amount of materials were due partially to the fact that each oba had a state monopoly on ivory, coral, brass, and wooden objects, which were an important part of public displays and ceremonies that were paraded, or were objects for ancestral altars.
The head of the Benin state was the oba, who had a sacred status. The oba was selected on the principle of primogeniture or to the eldest son, and he held political, economic, and religious power. He had monopolies on items such as ivory, and anyone who killed an ivory-bearing animal, such as an elephant, had to give one-half of the ivory to the oba, who also had first right of purchase to the rest. Matrilineal principles of inheritance were part of village leadership, and villages were usually divided into age sets or age grades that were responsible for different aspects of running the day-to-day affairs of the village.
The Art of A Resource for Educators AFRICA THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART [ These educational materials are made possible by Mr. and Mrs. Marvin H. Schein. Christa Clarke ] (2006 édition)
(Page 24-25)
The category of spirits believed to be most accessible to humans is that of recently deceased ancestors, who can intercede on behalf of the living community. Among the Akan in Ghana, ancestors are commemorated by terracotta sculptures that, when placed in a sacred grove near the cemetery, serve as a focal point for funeral rites and a point of contact with the deceased.
In many large states, a living king and leader may be regarded as divine as well. In the kingdom of Benin, in today’s Nigeria, the Oba historically was considered semidivine and therefore constituted the political and spiritual focus of the kingdom.
Art objects are employed as vehicles for spiritual communication in diverse ways. Some are created for use in an altar or shrine and may receive sacrifi cial offerings. The Dogon of Mali, for example, show gratitude to the ancestors by offering pieces of meat in a monumental container presented to the family altar .
In the kingdom of Benin (Nigeria), cast brass heads commemorating deceased kings are placed on royal ancestral altars, where they serve as a point of contact with the king’s royal ancestors.
(Page 35)
Because the elephant denotes strength and power in many African societies, ivory is also often used for arts associated with leadership. In centralized kingdoms, such as Benin (Nigeria), the use of ivory was historically an exclusive prerogative of royalty.
In some societies, ivory carvers constituted a separate category of artisans. At the court of Benin, for example, the ivory carvers were organized into a guild known as Igbesamwan and lived and worked in separate quarters.
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This pendant mask was created in the early sixteenth century for an Oba named Esigie, in honor of his mother Idia. The face has softly modeled, naturalistic features, with graceful curves that echo the oval shape of the head. Four carved scarification marks, a number associated with females, indicate her gender.
Iron inlays for the pupils and rims of the eyes intensify the Queen Mother’s authoritative gaze and suggest her inner strength. The two vertical depressions on her forehead were also inlaid with iron. She is depicted wearing a choker of coral beads and her hair is arranged in an elegant configuration that resembles a tiara. The intricately carved openwork designs are stylized mudfish alternating with the faces of Portuguese traders.
Both motifs are associated with the Oba and his counterpart, the sea god Olokun. The mudfish is a creature that lives both on land and in water, and a symbol of the king’s dual nature as both human and divine. Similarly, the Portuguese, as voyagers from across the sea, may have been seen as denizens of Olokun’s realm. Like the sea god, they brought great wealth and power to the Oba.
Queen Idia is honored as a powerful and politically astute woman who provided critical assistance to her son during the kingdom’s battles to expand.
Upon the successful conclusion of the war, Esigie paid tribute to Idia by bestowing upon her the title of Queen Mother, a custom that has continued with subsequent rulers until the present time. The title of Queen Mother, or Iyoba, is given to the woman who bears the Oba’s first son, the future ruler of the kingdom. Historically, the Queen Mother would have no other children and, instead, devote her life to raising her son.
Oba Esigie is said to have worn the mask as a pectoral during rites commemorating his mother. The hollow back, holes around the perimeter, and stopper composed of several tendrils of hair at the summit suggest that the mask functioned as an amulet, filled with special and powerful materials that protected the wearer.
Today, such pendants are worn at annual ceremonies of spiritual renewal and purification.
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Cast brass heads ... were commissioned by the kings of Benin to be placed on royal ancestral altars. The kingdom of Benin was a state founded around 1300 in the southern part of today’s Nigeria. It flourished for over half a millennium led by a succession of dynastic leaders, known as Obas.
The Oba, who was considered to be semi divine during his lifetime, was the political and spiritual leader of his people. He governed a complex network of lesser chiefs with varied political, administrative, and ritual duties. Upon ascending the throne, one of the Oba’s first ritual duties was to establish an altar commemorating the life and achievements of the previous king, his father.
The heads cast in brass are idealized representations of the individual Obas. This head, which dates to the mid-sixteenth century, is among the earliest examples of the genre, as indicated by the thin casting and naturalistic style. Later examples are more stylized, heavier castings, as metal became more plentiful through trade with European merchants.
Placed on the ancestral altar, the brass head not only commemorates a deceased Oba but offers an enduring reminder of his successful leadership throughout his reign. Such an altar was a point of contact with the spirit of the deceased king, should the Oba need support and advice from his ancestors. Placed on the ancestral altar, the brass head not only commemorates a deceased Oba but offers an enduring reminder of his successful leadership throughout his reign. Such an altar was a point of contact with the spirit of the deceased king, should the Oba need support and advice from his ancestors.
Here, the face is softly modeled, with broad nose, generous lips, and fleshy cheeks. Iron inlays originally filled the pupils of the large eyes, to intensify the gaze; iron was associated with formidable strength. The Oba’s crown, formed of diagonally woven strands of coral beads with long fringes, and his tiered coral necklace are rendered with exacting precision.
Palace ceremonies, in which the continuity of divine kingship was reinforced, took place—and continue to take place today—in front of these altars. Located in an open courtyard, royal ancestral altars are low, semicircular mud platforms.
Hollow-cast brass heads, each supporting a carved ivory tusk (inserted into the large hole on top), would be placed on each altar along with other royal objects, including brass altar tableaus and figurative representations, carved wooden staffs, brass bells, and ceremonial swords.
Brass and ivory, both valuable and durable materials, symbolized the Oba’s power and wealth.
Historically, the Oba was the principal patron of the arts in Benin. The artists’ guilds—which included blacksmiths, brass casters, sculptors in wood and ivory, bead workers and costume makers, and leather workers—worked under his patronage.
Most of the art created served to glorify the king, reinforce royal hierarchies, and enhance court life. Traditional art production under the patronage of the king came to an abrupt end in 1897, when British troops destroyed the capital city and looted the palace.
Today the kingdom of Benin exists as a political subdivision within Nigeria. Many of its ritual, political, and artistic activities resumed in 1914, when the son of the king exiled in 1897 returned to Benin.
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Around 1600, a Dutch visitor ( Olfert Dapper's compilation text, secondary account I GUESS) to the court of Benin described the magnificent palace complex, with its high-turreted buildings, as one of immense size and striking beauty. In the long, square galleries, wooden pillars were covered from top to bottom with brass plaques. Cast in relief from a wax model, the plaques were mounted on the palace pillars by nails punched through the corners.
The plaques depicted the Oba and various members of his retinue, including warrior chiefs, titleholders, priests, court officials, attendants, and foreign merchants. Shown singly or in small groups, the figures are portrayed in meticulous detail, their role and status indicated by costume, ornament, and hairstyle.
On plaques with multiple figures, the scale of the figures denotes their position within Benin court hierarchy. The largest one is most important, with others decreasing in size according to their relative significance. On this plaque, a regally dressed Oba seated sidesaddle on a horse is accompanied by prominent officials and other attendants. To emphasize his power and authority, the Oba is positioned in the center, is the largest figure, and wears his full coral bead regalia, including a high collar of stacked necklaces and crown of beads.
All coral was owned by the Oba and, because it comes from the sea, is associated with Olokun, god of the sea. The Oba is attended by two smaller figures holding protective shields. These titled administrative officials were responsible for palace provisions and for supplying ceremonial sacrifices. Swordbearers of lesser rank, indicated by their smaller size, support the king’s outstretched arms. Smaller still, and therefore of least importance, are the two miniature figures who hover in the corners above the Oba and the one who supports his feet. The background is ornamented by quatrefoil motifs representing river leaves, an allusion to Olokun and the prosperity brought across the seas through trade with the Portuguese.
https://usaartnews.com/news/benin-bronzes-are-getting-back-to-nigeria-from-smithsonian-african-art-museum
