The Rig Veda
Since the Rig Veda Samhita is the earliest source for information about these people a reading of it from the online sacred-texts upload i.e. Griffith’s translation is illuminating. The following comments are based on reading Books 1 through to about half of book 10. The last book is of a different vintage than the rest of the Rig Veda. The contents are different, the language is different and most commentators hold it to be of later composition. As such the reading of Book 10 is better left to be done in conjunction with the Atharvan and the Brahmanas. But having covered the Nadistuti and Purusha Sukta, I will be looking at them in the appropriate area.
Despite the opinion of many commentators, a reading of the Rig gives an impression of continuity and sequence i.e. the first books seems like the beginning. As already discussed the last book feels like the last addition and within the other books also, the sequence seems maintained. So in book 1 the scenery is more mountainous with swift streams corresponding to the Arghandeb and Peshawar region. Subsequently the scene shifts to the Punjab going further and further east and for the most part stays within Punjab and doesn’t go into the Ganges basin except in later interpolations of book 10. It is reasonable to assume that when the Rig was compiled, the priests knew exactly what the sequence was by tradition, which was much closer to them than our remote reading and hence compiled it according to the correct sequence.
The main issues to be solved are the location of the terrain, the Saraswati river, the relationship of the Rig Vedic people with the local people and also exactly how the integration of these two disparate cultures was accomplished. The way of life of the Arya is already well commented upon and described, forming as it does the vast majority of the Rig. Any glimmer of the way of life of the native population is the main thing to look for. In addition, differences from the normal usual life of the Aryans as explained by previous commentators – things ascribed to them which are not being evident – would also throw some light on what came into the culture from those who lived in the land before the Arya. The most glaring of these is the complete absence of the caste system in the Rig. But more on that later.
Most hymns in the first book are to Indra and Agni who carries the prayers to the Gods. Varuna, is not important in the first book except in one part. He seems to be considered the older and wiser God, keeping things in order and one whom you would fear if you break the laws. Mitra is similar but less often addressed. Mitra, Varuna and any of the Gods being addressed as the most important and ancient - are called Asura. So in this period of the Rig Veda, the important Gods are called the Asura, same as the Ahura of the Iranian people. The Gods are almost never addressed as Devas. The term Viswedevas (all Gods) is there in the title of the hymn, but not in the hymn themselves. So perhaps the Viswedevas in the title came later while arranging and compiling the Veda. Asura is mainly the name of Varuna but sometimes Indra in being praised is also called Asura. There are in the whole of Rig about four verses which are ambiguous about Asura, with a negative rather than a positive and glorifying sense. It is possible that these are either of later vintage – since these occur in the later books – or perhaps mistakes. Such mentions in book 10 should of course be analysed differently. The overall arrangement of each book is similar – hymns to Agni start off every book, then hymns to other Gods, then a major part extolling Indra, then calling on the other Gods. Towards the end are more unusual hymns which are either individual poetry by the main composers on odd topics or in some instances they could be later interpolations.
Throughout the Rig, there are numerous references to stories which are now lost – about people and events which at the time of composition would have been the topic of legend and folklore. But reading them now is baffling – just a glimpse - a fragment of a story which would have been talked about in detail by the people. Strangely, these stories are in many cases different in the different books. Some stories are repeated in every book, almost by rote – like the killing of Vritra, the rescue of the cattle from the mountain of Vala, the killing of Ahi, the killing of Vishna, the destruction of the forts of Sambara – these are repeated ad nauseum, as if the hymn could not be written without extolling the major exploits of Indra. Sometimes when another God is being praised, these exploits are also shifted to the other God. The Dasa and Dasyu killing is also talked about in this fashion and hence it becomes necessary to analyse each of these instances to see whether it is giving actual detail or whether it is just blind repetition which is unhelpful in drawing conclusions. But the other special stories about individual people are unfamiliar and strange. They don’t repeat and instead in each book another group of such stories are written.
Rig Veda 1.1.1 is a simple prayer to Agni as priest, bestower of wealth. These type of prayers are boringly repetitive and with the same theme - praise for the God being addressed and request for health or wealth or might in battle. So 1.2 is prayers to Vayu and Mitra Varuna, 1.3 to Asvins, Nasatyas, Indra, Vishvedevas - addressed in sequence like in any mantra sequence. Last three lines mention Saraswati
“10 Wealthy in spoil, enriched with hymns, may bright Sarasvatī desire, With eager love, our sacrifice.
11 Inciter of all pleasant songs, inspirer of all gracious thought, Sarasvatī accept our rite
12 Sarasvatī, the mighty flood,—she with her light illuminates, She brightens every pious thought”
So Saraswati the river which floods as referred above is important and subsequently is repetitive. Amu Darya, Helmand in the lower reaches, Kabul river and Indus can flood in these regions and which have open area good for animal grazing. Of these, the Kabul river seems more probable given absence of more severe cold of Uzbekistan and Helmand regions of Afghanistan where the winters are pretty cold and goes sub zero. Pakistan i.e Punjab and NWFP has much better temperatures which doesnt dip much below zero except for a few days. Peshawar on the Kabul river has much better weather than the other side of the Khyber pass in Kabul. So the flooding river could just be Kabul river and Indus would be the Sindu. The area would be good for animal husbandry especially for cows and horses. Across the Indus the post harappan lands and the forests start. But the Peshawar area has gentler climate than Afghanistan and could be a good climate to settle in. The Kabul river would be a better place to settle than in Helmand river basin or the high mountains where the Hazara graze goats and if a people are migrating from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, they are more likely to come to Peshawar, displacing the previous Dardic peope to higher reaches of the mountains. The mention of spoil in the verses above is interesting. It suggests that on the banks of the Saraswati lived a people who could be looted. Which suggests the banks of the Kabul river before it joins the Indus and the west bank of the Indus along which cemetery H culture was living.
The evidence from the Iranians is however more in keeping with Afghanistan. The Iranians called the Saraswati as Haraxwati, just as they called Asura as Ahura. The Iranians say that the Haraxwati flows in the Sistan and Khandahar regions of Afghanistan. This is recorded by the Greeks as well. That suggests that it was either the Helmand – which floods as per above description – or the Argandeb which joins the Helmand.
Most likely the Saraswati of the Veda refers to a number of swift flowing rivers. It might even refer to the Oxus in historicity though this is very very unlikely. Not impossible if the priesthood preserved portions of the hymns used during the BMAC sojourn. More likely it refers to the swift mountain streams of the Afghanistan and NWFP i.e. Argandab, Helmand, Kabul and Swat rivers – since the later names Swastu and Kubha are not referred to in the Rig Veda despite the Indus being repeatedly referred to and the other 5 rivers of the Punjab also being referred to but not the Kabul or Swat till the 10th chapter. The ghandhara Grave culture was definitely living along the Swat and similar burrial sites in the Helmand region are currently unfortunately in the hands of the Pushtun Taliban. But previous excavations suggest a large burial culture along the Helmand similar to the Swat. So the obvious conclusion is either the Swat Kabul system which I prefer because flows into the Indus or the Argandeb Helmand system. It could mean mountain stream and hence both.
Coming back to the Veda, the prayers to Indra are numerous, called Satakratu and Vritra slayer, Sakra wealth giver and son of Kusika, rider of chariot drawn by bay horses and who burst the mountain to bring the kine, crusher of forts, who overthrew the wily Susna. Although the terms crusher of forts and destroyer of the serpent brings to mind the possible allegory towards the clouds and rain, more likely it is actual physical destruction of the forts of the Dasyu. Like the lightning cleaving the clouds to bring the rain, the power of the Arya in inflicting powerful damage on the forts of the locals is referred. Prayers to Agni, called Narasamsa, and appointed by Manu as priest suggest the importance of Manu as the original Man – a theme which is repeated throughout the Rig. Calling a lot of Gods and Godesses who are also frequently addressed and are not unimportant to prayer is a recurrent feature. The composers, like the Kanvas for this part, are frequently named.
Vishnu makes first appearance as usual as the strider - who made the three strides. Also called a guardian Vishnu has reasonable importance in the Rig. Clearly the later Epics and Puranas invented the Vamana avatara stories to fit around this legend which is of the most ancient and has nothing to do with the Dasavatara stories. Sloka 11 comes in the sandhya vandana which would have been memorised after thread ceremony. 1.25 has more prayers to Varuna. Prayer order is different from what is found in the daily use Sandhya vandana - probably these same are rearranged in the Yajur Veda. Varuna is described as wearing golden mail.
11 I ask this of thee with my prayer adoring; thy worshipper craves this with his oblation.
Varuṇa, stay thou here and be not angry; steal not our life from us, O thou Wide-Ruler.
तत तवा यामि बरह्मणा वन्दमानस्तदा शास्ते यजमानो हविर्भिः |
अहेळमानो वरुणेह बोध्युरुशंस मा न आयुःप्र मोषीः ||
यच्चिद धि ते विशो यथा पर देव वरुण वरतम |
मिनीमसिद्यवि-दयवि ||
इमं मे वरुण शरुधी हवमद्या च मर्ळय |
तवामवस्युरा चके ||
1.32 Here we have the main Indra legend about the slaying of Vritra. Using the thunderbolt Vajra, fashioned by Tvastar, he kills the serpent. The fort referred to here are the clouds and Indra is the God of thunder and Vajra is his lightning splitting the clouds. These dont mean actual forts. And the demon is called a snake.
HYMN XXXII. Indra.
1 I WILL declare the manly deeds of Indra, the first that he achieved, the Thunder-wielder.
He slew the Dragon, then disclosed the waters, and cleft the channels of the mountain torrents.
2 He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvaṣṭar fashioned.
Like lowing kine in rapid flow descending the waters glided downward to the ocean.
3 Impetuous as a bull, he chose the Soma and in three sacred beakers drank the juices.
Maghavan grasped the thunder for his weapon, and smote to death this firstborn of the dragons.
4 When, Indra, thou hadst slain the dragon's firstborn, and overcome the charms of the enchanters,
Then, giving life to Sun and Dawn and Heaven, thou foundest not one foe to stand against thee.
5 Indra with his own great and deadly thunder smote into pieces Vṛtra, worst of Vṛtras.
As trunks of trees, what time the axe hath felled them, low on the earth so lies the prostrate Dragon.
6 He, like a mad weak warrior, challenged Indra, the great impetuous many-slaying Hero.
He, brooking not the clashing of the weapons, crushed—Indra's foe—the shattered forts in falling.
7 Footless and handless still he challenged Indra, who smote him with his bolt between the shoulders.
Emasculate yet claiming manly vigour, thus Vṛtra lay with scattered limbs dissevered.
8 There as he lies like a bank-bursting river, the waters taking courage flow above him.
The Dragon lies beneath the feet of torrents which Vṛtra with his greatness had encompassed.
9 Then humbled was the strength of Vṛtra's mother: Indra hath cast his deadly bolt against her.
The mother was above, the son was under and like a cow beside her calf lay Danu.
10 Rolled in the midst of never-ceasing currents flowing without a rest for ever onward.
The waters bear off Vṛtra's nameless body: the foe of Indra sank to during darkness.
This is one of the most detailed descriptions for the slaying of Vritra the serpent dragon. This simply has to be inspired by the impressive clouds of the monsoon being called as a fort and the deluge following the cloud burst with thunder and lightning, which brings the much needed water for the cattle to prosper. Clearly this would need to be composed in Peshawar where the monsoon would be visible dramatically rather than in Helmand province.
But in addition the impressive show of strength is immediately applied to the other foes faced by the Arya i.e. the Dasyu, in the next following verse
11 Guarded by Ahi stood the thralls of Dāsas, the waters stayed like kine held by the robber.
But he, when he had smitten Vṛtra, opened the cave wherein the floods had been imprisoned.
12 A horse's tail wast thou when he, O Indra, smote on thy bolt; thou, God without a second,
Thou hast won back the kine, hast won the Soma; thou hast let loose to flow the Seven Rivers.
13 Nothing availed him lightning, nothing thunder, hailstorm or mist which had spread around him:
When Indra and the Dragon strove in battle, Maghavan gained the victory for ever.
14 Whom sawest thou to avenge the Dragon, Indra, that fear possessed thy heart when thou hadst slain him;
That, like a hawk affrighted through the regions, thou crossedst nine-and-ninety flowing rivers?
15 Indra is King of all that moves and moves not, of creatures tame and horned, the Thunder-wielder.
Over all living men he rules as Sovran, containing all as spokes within the felly.
So the slaying of the dragon is a myth inspired by the thirsting people waiting for the monsoon and the power is invoked for strength in fighting. But in addition the description of the foe is interesting. Guarded by a dragon – does it mean that the Dasas were worshippers of an alien God? The power of the sorcerers also suggests the same alien beliefs. Thralls of Dasas sounds like a big army of footsoldiers, an enslaved fighting group pushed by the leaders who worship alien Gods. The cattle owned by these people might be the reason why the Arya were raiding them – the Dasyu too were cattle raisers just like the Arya and hid them in guarded stalls or perhaps even caves or mountain ravines – obviously to hide them from the lustful eyes of the Arya.
Later descriptions are even more interesting:
1.33.4 Thou slewest with thy bolt the wealthy Dasyu, alone, yet going with thy helpers, Indra!
Far from the floor of heaven in all directions, the ancient riteless ones fled to destruction.
5 Fighting with pious worshippers, the riteless turned and fled, Indra! with averted faces.
When thou, fierce Lord of the Bay Steeds, the Stayer, blewest from earth and heaven and sky the godless.
6 They met in fight the army of the blameless: then the Navagvas put forth all their power.
They, like emasculates with men contending, fled, conscious, by steep paths from Indra, scattered.
7 Whether they weep or laugh, thou hast o’erthrown them, O Indra, on the sky's extremest limit.
The Dasyu thou hast burned from heaven, and welcomed the prayer of him who pours the juice and lauds thee.
8 Adorned with their array of gold and jewels, they o’er the earth a covering veil extended.
Although they hastened, they o’ercame not Indra: their spies he compassed with the Sun of morning.
9 As thou enjoyest heaven and earth, O Indra, on every side surrounded with thy greatness,
So thou with priests hast blown away the Dasyu, and those who worship not with those who worship.
10 They who pervaded earth's extremest limit subdued not with their charms the Wealth-bestower:
Indra, the Bull, made his ally the thunder, and with its light milked cows from out the darkness.
11 The waters flowed according to their nature; he raid the navigable streams waxed mighty.
Then Indra, with his spirit concentrated, smote him for ever with his strongest weapon.
12 Indra broke through Ilībiśa's strong castles, and Śuṣṇa with his horn he cut to pieces:
Thou, Maghavan, for all his might and swiftness, slewest thy fighting foeman with thy thunder
13 Fierce on his enemies fell Indra's weapon: with. his sharp bull he rent their forts in pieces.
He with his thunderbolt dealt blows on Vṛtra; and conquered, executing all his purpose.
14 Indra, thou helpest Kutsa whom thou lovedst, and guardedst brave Daśadyu when he battled,
The dust of trampling horses rose to heaven, and Śvitrā's son stood up again for conquest.
15 Śvitrā's mild steer, O Maghavan thou helpest in combat for the land, mid Tugra's houses.
Long stood they there before the task was ended: thou wast the master of the foemen's treasure.
The wealth of the Dasyu is patent. He has cattle, he has gold, he is riteless i.e. not Aryan. Dasyu had spies, they were in large numbers and covered the ground – a major army. The battle ground was steep so it is set in the hills. It is likely that this was a foray of the Arya from Afghanistan into Peshawar region and the area was well defended by the local people. Dasyu seems to stand for the unGodly enemies, whom Indra helps the Arya to kill while the term Dasa seems to be for the native people in general. So Dasyu would be the term for this group of riteless people whereas Dasa would be for the same common people or their footsoldiers without reference to their religion. The forts here seem more like real forts and could be the smaller towns seen during the post Harappan phase. The defenders knew the area well and must have fortified to guard against the barbarian Aryans hordes whom they knew were massing outside. The Dasyu are named – Ilibisa and Susna. Susna is repeatedly referred to in other hymns later and the initial defender must have made an impression to be referred to so many times later. The hymn shows that the Arya were a fighting people and looted the forts they won and the foeman’s treasure was evidently repeatedly gathered, since these verses of gathering booty and rending forts are repeated throughout the Rig. But this is one of the most detailed descriptions of the fight against the Dasyu, other references are just passing repetitions. People are named in 1.36. Perhaps these hymns were composed after every fight and Indra is said to help the returning fighters - a sensible explanation. So the Yadu would be a group of fighters from one of the important fighting families.
1.35. 9 The golden-handed Savitar, far-seeing, goes on his way between the earth and heaven,
Drives away sickness, bids the Sun approach us, and spreads the bright sky through the darksome region.
10 May he, gold-handed Asura, kind Leader, come hither to us with his help and favour.
Driving off Rākṣasas and Yātudhānas, the God is present, praised in hymns at evening.
Here Savitar is also called Asura. So Mitra, Varuna, Agni,and Savitar and a few others would be the more ancient great Gods from an ancestral memory and Indra, Maruts and Aswins would be the newer and younger Gods more closely identified with these specific people. Rakshasas and Yatudhanas or vampires are more likely mythical enemies than actual ones. I doubt if it refers to cannibal practices. Some of the hymns like 1.41 have intriguing wording of prayers to Varuna and are quite difficult to understand even in English and might indicate a more mystic hymn, whose significance would need commentary from a teacher or senior priest.
1.42. 2 Drive, Pūṣan, from our road the wolf, the wicked inauspicious wolf,
Who lies in wait to injure us.
3 Who lurks about the path we take, the robber with a guileful heart:
Far from the road chase him away.
The wolf is the main predator in the majority of the Rig, repeatedly referred to. Later the wolf references reduce but the tiger and leopard don’t appear which is significant. It is impossible for anyone to live in India and not refer to the tiger. The number of references also suggest the wolf was a major predator and although the references die down in the later books, till book 9 the wolf is the main predator. Later the lion makes an appearance but not the tiger. But in the Atharva Veda and the other Vedic texts, the tiger is a major participant. So this again point to the Peshawar region as the most likely location since wolf is there but tiger is not there and lions which were present in Afghanistan are infrequent.
There are no epidemics referred to in Rig. Mention of many diseases like jaundice in this book (1.50.11) where the poet says remove my yellow colour and give it to parrots and starlings or to the Haritala trees and other diseases find later mention. Dasyu is always the non-follower. But no further description. Sambara makes an appearance here – later his 99 forts being destroyed by the Arya finds repeated mention. The effective use of archery in breaching the defence of the Dasyu who seem to have numerous followers but mainly footsoldiers without the horse chariot or much archery if they were so easily routed.
6 Thou savedst Kutsa when Śuṣṇa was smitten down; to Atithigva gavest Śambara for a prey.
E’en mighty Arbuda thou troddest under foot: thou from of old wast born to strike the Dasyus dead.
8 Discern thou well Āryas and Dasyus; punishing the lawless give them up to him whose grass is strewn.
The Strong hath loosed his bolt with the swift rush of rain, and he hath rent in pieces Śuṣṇa's firm-built forts.
In the hymn below, the line giver of barley is interesting. Rice is never mentioned in the Rig, but barley is. Taking away our poverty indicates a poor existence before the Arya conquer the Dasyu. Freed from their hate – this line seems to suggest that the Dasyu had the better locations and must have been in the lower valley of the Kabul river and on either sides of the Indus. They obviously hated the Arya and were loth to give up their positions. In any drought they would have access to the major source of water from the snow melt Indus and obviously displacing them would have been the primary aim of the Arya. There might have been repeated battles before this objective was achieved, if the Dasyu were fortified and well entrenched. But the defender of the Khyber pass has always fallen in history. Dasyu were no exception and the descriptions of falling to the arrows suggest an easy rout.
1.53.2 Giver of horses, Indra, giver, thou, of kine, giver of barley, thou art Lord and guard of wealth:
4 Well pleased with these bright flames and with these Soma drops,
take thou away our poverty with seeds and kine.
With Indra scattering the Dasyu through these drops, freed from their hate may we obtain abundant food.
7 Thou goest on from fight to fight intrepidly, destroying castle after castle here with strength.
Thou, Indra, with thy friend who makes the foe bow down, slewest from far away the guileful Namuci.
8 Thou hast struck down in death Karañja, Parṇaya, in Atithigva's very glorious going forth.
Unyielding, when Ṛjiśvan compassed them with siege, thou hast destroyed the hundred forts of Vaṅgṛida.
9 With all-outstripping chariot-wheel, O Indra, thou far-famed, hast overthrown the twice ten Kings of men,
With sixty thousand nine-and-ninety followers, who came in arms to fight with friendless Suśravas.
10 Thou hast protected Suśravas with succour, and Tūrvayāṇa with thine aid, O Indra.
Thou madest Kutsa, Atithigva, Āyu, subject unto this King, the young, the mighty.
11 May we protected by the Gods hereafter remain thy very prosperous friends, O Indra.
Thee we extol, enjoying through thy favour life long and joyful and with store of heroes.
Again the foes are named above – Namuci, Karamja, Parnaya. Here the hundred forts are of Vangrida and not Sambara – perhaps every ford of the next river needed defeat of the forts on the other side. So the forts on the Khyber pass were Susna, this side of the Indus were Vangrida and his named allies, after that came Sambara and so on with the subsequent 5 tributaries of the Indus in Punjab. The enemies are made to run in crowds in the next hymn.
4 The ridges of the lofty heaven thou madest shake; thou, daring, of thyself smotest through Śambara,
When bold with gladdening juice, thou warredst with thy bolt,
sharp and two-edged, against the banded sorcerers.
5 When with a roar that fills the woods, thou forcest down on wind's head the stores which Śuṣṇa kept confined,
6 Thou helpest Narya, Turvaśa, and Yadu, and Vayya's son Turvīti, Śatakratu!
Thou helpest horse and car in final battle thou breakest down the nine-and-ninety castles.
10 There darkness stood, the vault that stayed the waters’ flow:
in Vṛtra's hollow side the rain-cloud lay concealed.
But Indra smote the rivers which the obstructer stayed, flood following after flood, down steep declivities.
11 So give us, Indra, bliss-increasing glory give us great sway and strength that conquers people.
Preserve our wealthy patrons, save our princes; vouchsafe us wealth and food with noble offspring.
6 Now will I tell the greatness of the Hero whom Pūru's sons follow as Vṛtra's slayer:
Agni Vaiśvānara struck down the Dasyu, cleave Śambara through and shattered down his fences.
Smiting the enemy Sambara is combined with a description as banded sorcerers suggesting different religious beliefs which were much hated by the Arya. The Dasyu is also repeatedly compared to the dragon who stays the water which suggests that they were guarding the access to rivers which the Arya wanted. The words steep declivities again suggests that the action is now in Peshawar region and in the foothills before the Indus plain. This section of the first book seems like the earliest descriptions of the conquest of the region. The prayers are written by one group of priests the Kanvas who might have been the main tribe involved in the hostilities. Cleaving Sambara might indicate sword usage – since bronze swords were present in the GGC burials.
1.60 starts with more agni prayers by Gotamas. This section composed by the Gotamas is also simple like the Kanvas, although prayers to Agni are more fanciful and quite elegantly descriptive of how the fire spreads and dances. The boar demon is repeated many times.
1.62. 3 When Indra and the Aṅgirases desired it, Saramā found provision for her offspring.
Bṛhaspati cleft the mountain, found the cattle: the heroes shouted with the kine in triumph.
4 Mid shout, loud shout, and roar, with the Navagvas, seven singers, hast thou, heavenly, rent the mountain;
Thou hast, with speeders, with Daśagvas, Indra, Śakra, with thunder rent obstructive Vala.
The Rakshasas below are defilers of the sacrifice and could be wandering bandits and robbers who attack the Arya in isolation. They could even be isolated magicians or followers of other religions found in the region. The Rakshasas were the demons (and not the Asuras) in the ancient period.
1.76.3 Burn thou up all the Rākṣasas, O Agni; ward thou off curses from our sacrifices.
Many mentions of the rains bringing water to a parched land are there. Now the Indus is fed by glaciers. So it is likely the Kabul river that they are speaking of and the valley slopes on which the cattle would need to graze.
1.95. 16 This prayer of ours may Varuṇa grant, and Mitra, and Aditi and Sindhu, Earth and Heaven.
The last line is repeated in this group of hymns. The sense of Sindu is more of generic for river than for one specific river and more in the sense of a Goddess. I wonder what Simyu means – suggests that these were tribal appellations and the locals called themselves Dasyu.
1.100.18 He, much invoked, hath slain Dasyus and Śimyus, after his wont, and laid them low with arrows.
The mighty Thunderer with his fair-complexioned friends won the land, the sunlight, and the waters.
The Arya are the fair complexioned friends above. Elsewhere there are a couple of references to Dasyu having dark skin but only few and occasional references to skin colour. Again comes a list of foe names below (including Vyasa) and forts being struck down below:
1.101.2 Indra, who with triumphant wrath smote Vyaṁsa down, and Śambara, and Pipru the unrighteous one;
Who extirpated Śuṣṇa the insatiate,—him girt by Maruts we invoke to be our Friend.
5 He who is Lord of all the world that moves and breathes, who for the Brahman first before all found the Cows;
Indra who cast the Dasyus down beneath his feet,—him girt by Maruts we invoke to be our Friend.
1.103.2 He spread the wide earth out and firmly fixed it, smote with his thunderbolt and loosed the waters.
Maghavan with his puissance struck down Ahi, rent Rauhiṇa to death and slaughtered Vyaṁsa.
3 Armed with his bolt and trusting in his prowess he wandered shattering the forts of Dāsas.
Cast thy dart, knowing, Thunderer, at the Dasyu; increase the Ārya's might and glory, Indra.
4 For him who thus hath taught these human races, Maghavan, bearing a fame-worthy title,
Thunderer, drawing nigh to slay the Dasyus, hath given himself the name of Son for glory.
8 As thou hast smitten Śuṣṇa, Pipru, Vṛtra and Kuyava, and Śambara's forts, O Indra.
This prayer of ours may Varuṇa grant, and Mitra, and Aditi and Sindhu, Earth and Heaven.
After the victory seems to come the rooting out of the enemy and despatching him as below:
1.104.2 2 These men have come to Indra for assistance: shall he not quickly come upon these pathways?
May the Gods quell the fury of the Dāsa, and may they lead our folk to happy fortune.
4 This hath his kinship checked who lives beside us: with ancient streams forth speeds and rules the Hero,
Añjasī, Kuliśī, and Virapatnī, delighting him, bear milk upon their waters.
5 Soon as this Dasyu's traces were discovered, as she who knows her home, he sought the dwelling.
Now think thou of us, Maghavan, nor cast us away as doth a profligate his treasure.
It is almost as if the Aryas were seeking out the forts where these people lived and striking them down. Now after 1700 BC, there were only settlements of the Cemery H people along the Indus. These must be the forts being broken. The Cemetery H culture were living in very numerous small villages with mud brick huts, just like you have in the villages of India even now. These might be the people who were sought out and destroyed by the Aryans after destroying their main forts. Definitely these descriptions cannot be for the other Indo Aryan tribes, since they wouldnt live in forts.
1.105Yet torturing cares consume me as the wolf assails the thirsty deer.
18 A ruddy wolf beheld me once, as I was faring on my path.
The wolf again as the main predator. That means Afghanistan and maximum NWFP. Leopard, snow leopards and persian leopards are well known in the entire region as also lions during this part of history, but suggest a location in Peshawar rather than the Sistan region of Afghanistan.
HYMN CXII. Aśvins.
14 Ye from the wolf's jaws, as ye stood together, set free the quail, O Heroes, O Nāsatyas.
Ye, Lords of many treasures, gave the poet his perfect vision as he mourned his trouble.
15 When in the time of night, in Khela's battle, a leg was severed like a wild bird's pinion,
Straight ye gave Viśpalā a leg of iron that she might move what time the conflict opened.
16 His father robbed Ṛjrāśva of his eyesight who for the she-wolf slew a hundred wethers.
Ye gave him eyes, Nāsatyas, Wonder-Workers, Physicians, that he saw with sight uninjured.
17 The Daughter of the Sun your car ascended, first reaching as it were the goal with coursers.
All Deities within their hearts assented, and ye, Nāsatyas, are close linked with glory.
18 When to his house ye came, to Divodāsa, hasting to Bharadvāja, O ye Aśvins,
The car that came with you brought splendid riches: a porpoise and a bull were yoked together.
23 To Viśvaka, Nāsatyas! son of Kṛṣṇa, the righteous man who sought your aid and praised you,
Ye with your powers restored, like some lost creature, his son Viṣṇāpū for his eyes to look on.
The Daughter of the Sun with all her glory, O ye Nāsatyas, chose your car to bear her.
16 The quail had invocated you, O Aśvins, when from the wolf's devouring jaws ye freed her.
With conquering car ye cleft the mountain's ridges: the offspring of Viśvāc ye killed with poison.
17 He whom for furnishing a hundred wethers to the she-wolf, his wicked father blinded,—
To him, Ṛjrāśva, gave ye eyes, O Aśvins; light to the blind ye sent for perfect vision.
18 To bring the blind man joy thus cried the she-wolf: O Aśvins, O ye Mighty Ones, O Heroes,
For me Ṛjrāśva, like a youthful lover, hath. cut piecemeal one and a hundred wethers.
Blasting away the Dasyu with your trumpet, ye gave far-spreading light unto the Ārya.
There are clearly stories associated with the hymns above with which the people would be well associated. These stories are now lost. The five tribes seems to be their own appellation for the Aryas, they were originally 5 tribes. The stories are very numerous and not at all known in our current mythology. A few of the more prominent names from the Veda like Daksha or Sambara are mentioned again in the Puranas but completely different stories are invented about them. So the Puranic stories tried to recreate a lost memory by new invention because the tribal lore with which these hymns were associated were now lost. Many stories about people being lost in the floods is another recurring story.
1.119. 4 Ye came to Bhujyu while he struggled in the flood, with flying birds, self-yoked, ye bore him to his sires
1.122. 14 The sea and all the Deities shall give us him with the golden ear and neck bejewelled.
The sea is referred to many times. So these people would perhaps go down Sind to the Sea. Quite a fair distance. Caspian sea is less likely given the descriptions. Vaksh and Oxus do flood and can carry people away. But even if these were recent memories, with the Dasyu being described, these memories were now transferred to the Kabul river, the Indus and the Arabian sea. I doubt if the Oxus would ever be be called Sindhu. So it is safe to assume that these many stories are of the Kabul river which is notorious for flash floods, the Indus and the sea is the Arabian sea. There is absolutely no sense of any other homeland or a place from which the Arya have been defeated or displaced. So a slow migration into Afghanistan and then an invasion and shift into Punjab is the obvious interpretation
HYMN CXXXI. Indra.
1. To Indra Dyaus the Asura hath bowed him down, to Indra mighty Earth with wide-extending tracts,
to win the light, with wide-spread tracts.
3 Couples desirous of thine aid are storming thee, pouring their presents forth to win a stall of kine,
pouring gifts, Indra, seeking thee.
Thou hast chastised, O Indra, Lord of Strength, the man who worships not,
And made thine own this great earth and these water-floods; with joyous heart these water-floods
1.132
Their battle-cry thou madest sound victorious in the shocks of war.
One stream after another have they gained from thee, eager for glory have they gained.
6 Indra and Parvata, our champions in the fight, drive ye away each man who fain would war with us,
drive him far from us with the bolt.
The reason for war was the need for water. This is made abundantly clear by constant repetition. The quest for booty and cattle of course gave added impetus.
HYMN CXXXIII. Indra.
1. WITH sacrifice I purge both earth and heaven: I burn up great she-fiends who serve not Indra,
Where throttled by thy hand the foes were slaughtered, and in the pit of death lay pierced and mangled.
2 O thou who castest forth the stones crushing the sorceresses’ heads,
Break them with thy wide-spreading foot, with thy wide-spreading mighty foot.
3 Do thou, O Maghavan, beat off these sorceresses' daring strength.
Cast them within the narrow pit. within the deep and narrow pit.
I wonder exactly what these sorcerers and sorceresses are. Maybe just mythical superstition related to the Rakshasas.
HYMN CLI. Mitra and Varuṇa
4 The people prospers, Asuras! whom ye dearly love: ye, Righteous Ones, proclaim aloud the Holy Law.
That efficacious power that comes from lofty heaven, ye bind unto the work, as to the pole an ox.
Strange that immediately after the fight, mention comes of ploughing and agriculture. Once in the plains around Indus, the Aryans would adopt the local agricultural practices in the more fertile region, probably using the Dasas to do the work.